Applications and biological efficacy of Jeju lava seawater
Article information
Abstract
The present article provides a comprehensive review of Jeju lava seawater (JLS), a unique underground water resource from Jeju Island, Korea, renowned for its distinct mineral composition. Herein, its biological effects and potential underlying mechanism(s) of action are summarized, with a particular focus on the pivotal roles of its mineral components. Many studies have indicated that JLS possesses potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimelanogenic properties, along with beneficial effects on metabolic disorders, skin health, and joint conditions. These diverse effects are attributed to its rich profile of macro-minerals (e.g., magnesium, calcium, potassium) and trace elements (e.g., zinc, selenium, vanadium, germanium), which synergistically modulate key cellular pathways, including nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, mitogen-activated protein kinases, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells, and adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase. Current applications include cosmetics, functional foods, and balneotherapy, supported by robust safety data from genotoxicity and oral toxicity studies. Although preclinical evidence is compelling, further large-scale human clinical trials are essential to fully establish its therapeutic potential and optimize its application across various health domains.
INTRODUCTION
Jeju lava (i.e., magma) seawater (JLS) is a unique underground water resource, primarily found in the eastern region of Jeju Island, Korea [1,2]. This distinctive water originates from pristine seawater, which naturally infiltrates deep underground and undergoes meticulous filtration through extensive layers of porous volcanic bedrock [3]. This natural purification process is fundamental to its perceived health benefits and industrial applicability due to its consistent, clean, and mineral-rich source. The defining characteristic of JLS is its rich and unique mineral composition, which is infused during centuries of filtration through layers of volcanic rock [4]. While sharing essential minerals, such as magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca), with general seawater, JLS is distinguished by additional beneficial trace elements acquired during its underground journey through volcanic bedrock. The presence of both macro-minerals and specific trace elements derived from volcanic bedrock is a key distinguishing factor contributing to its broader range of biological effects compared with general seawater. Volcanic filtration not only purifies the water but also enriches it with specific, bioavailable trace elements not typically found in high concentrations in surface seawater or are present in deep seawater, which is crucial for the purported functional benefits and differentiates it from other water sources. Prompted by the increasing number of commercial applications of JLS and accumulating preclinical evidence, this review critically synthesizes the most recent findings. The key minerals identified in JLS [4,5] and their reported biological roles [6] are summarized in Table 1.
Key mineral components of Jeju lava seawater and their reported biological roles
BIOLOGICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL EFFECTS
1. Antioxidant properties and mechanisms
JLS and its natural extracts possess significant antioxidant properties. Studies indicate that JLS enhances the activity of key endogenous antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase. This effect is particularly pronounced in cellular models of oxidative stress, such as HepG2, leading to effective scavenging of intracellular reactive oxygen species and protection against hydrogen peroxide-induced cell death [7]. The mechanism underlying this antioxidant effect involves the upregulation and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) [8]. Nrf2 is a master regulator of the cellular antioxidant response, and its activation leads to increased expression of downstream antioxidant enzymes, including NQO1 and HO-1, in human dermal fibroblasts. This suggests that the antioxidant effects of JLS are not merely due to direct scavenging of free radicals, but rather involve the activation of the body’s own defense mechanisms, providing more robust and sustained protection against oxidative stress. The activation of Nrf2 also contributes to enhanced collagen production, which may yield protective effects against photoaging. Furthermore, JLS has been shown to enhance the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of various crop extracts, such as carrot leaf extracts, by increasing the content of phenolic compounds, including chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and cymaroside [9].
2. Anti-inflammatory actions and mechanisms
JLS possesses significant anti-inflammatory properties and often exerts synergistic effects when combined with other natural extracts. A notable study reported that JLS enhanced the anti-inflammatory activity of Litsea japonica fruit extract (LFE) in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells [10]. Combined treatment with JLS and LFE strongly inhibited nitric oxide (NO) production, and downregulated inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression. Both NO and COX-2 are crucial pro-inflammatory mediators, and their suppression directly affects the inflammatory cascade. Mechanistically, this anti-inflammatory effect was mediated through the downregulation of the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), specifically ERK, JNK, and p38. MAPKs are central to cellular inflammatory responses and control the expression of numerous pro-inflammatory cytokines and enzymes [11]. By targeting these upstream pathways, JLS, particularly in synergistic formulations, exerts a wide range of anti-inflammatory effects that extend beyond reducing 1 or 2 inflammatory markers. Additionally, co-treatment suppressed the phosphorylation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB)-p65 and NF-κB inhibitor α (IκB-α), and mildly inhibited the degradation of IκB-α. Because NF-κB is a critical transcription factor involved in inflammatory processes, its modulation further contributes to anti-inflammatory outcome(s). The roles of Ca and Mg, however, are suggestive (based on related studies) and have not been directly confirmed for JLS [12], directly linking observed pharmacological effect to its mineral composition.
3. Effects on skin health
JLS is a highly valued ingredient in the cosmeceutical industry due to its diverse benefits for skin health. Its mineral-rich composition contributes to several key dermatological improvements. The minerals in JLS improve the intrinsic ability of the skin to retain moisture, leading to deeper and more prolonged hydration by increasing the expression of aquaporin-3 (AQP-3), CD-44, filaggrin, and caspase-14 in cultured keratinocytes (in vitro) and in a skin-equivalent ex vivo model [13]. This effect is supported by studies reporting increased expression of moisturizing factors, such as AQP-3, which facilitates water transport across cell membranes, and CD-44, a hyaluronic acid receptor, which promotes moisture retention in AQP-3-knockout mice [14]. Additionally, it increases the levels of filaggrin and caspase-14, which are involved in the generation of natural moisturizing factors [15]. The minerals present in JLS also help reinforce the skin barrier, making it more resilient and less susceptible to irritation and damage from environmental aggressors [16]. Silica and Mg play vital roles in collagen production and skin cell regeneration [17]. This enhances skin elasticity and firmness, which can reduce the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles. The calming properties of Mg specifically soothe irritated skin and reduce redness, making JLS particularly beneficial for sensitive skin types [12]. In addition to general skin health, JLS significantly inhibits melanogenesis [18]. It has been shown to safely and effectively inhibit α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH)-induced melanin synthesis in B16F10 melanoma cells. This action occurs through the modulation of the calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase β (CaMKKβ)-5′ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway. The activation of AMPK, in turn, inhibits the signaling pathways of protein kinase A (PKA) and MAPKs, which are crucial for the expression of melanogenesis-related genes. The detailed molecular mechanism highlights its potential as a novel therapeutic agent for ameliorating skin pigmentation disorders.
4. Metabolic benefits: diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular health
JLS has demonstrated promising effects in addressing lifestyle-related diseases including diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular conditions. Its mineral composition is often compared with that of deep-sea water, which has known benefits for these conditions. Electrodialyzed desalted ground seawater from JLS promotes insulin-induced glucose consumption in L6 muscle cells [19]. Some Jeju groundwater samples, particularly those containing vanadium, were found to stimulate glucose uptake in a vanadium-dependent manner, mimicking the effects of insulin. This finding suggests its potential role in improving glycemic control. Mineral-rich JLS inhibits lipid accumulation. Studies that optimized the Ca:Mg ratio in JLS found that a high Ca:Mg ratio (e.g., 5:1) effectively suppressed lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes [20]. This indicates that the precise balance of these key minerals -rather than their individual presence- is crucial for eliciting targeted biological responses. Furthermore, long-term intake of JLS (with hardness levels of 800 or 100 mg/L) significantly decreased epididymal adipose tissue weight and reduced adipocyte size in high-fat diet (HFD)-fed mice, suggesting its potent anti-obesity effects [21]. JLS also suppressed palmitate-induced intracellular fat accumulation in human hepatoma HepG2 cells and reduced hepatic fat accumulation in HFD-fed mice [7]. Deep seawater from Murotocape (Kochi, Japan) has been shown to have beneficial effects on hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis in animal models [22]. Because the mineral composition of JLS is similar to that of deep-sea water,5 JLS is anticipated to have similar beneficial effects on hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis.
5. Joint and bone health: anti-osteoarthritis effects
JLS is a promising therapeutic agent for joint and bone health, particularly in osteoarthritis (OA). Balneotherapy, which involves bathing in JLS, has been investigated as a nonpharmacological treatment for knee OA [23]. In a rat model of knee OA, bathing in JLS significantly reduced joint thickness, improved mobility, increased bone mineral density of the joint, and decreased Mankin scores in the cartilage, collectively indicating a protective effect against cartilage degradation. The benefits of JLS for OA extend beyond its general anti-inflammatory effects to direct chondroprotective and chondrogenesis-promoting actions. This suggests its potential as a therapeutic agent for cartilage health via modulation of both anabolic and catabolic factors. In vitro studies investigating chondrocytes stimulated with pro-inflammatory cytokines revealed that treatment with JLS resulted in a concentration-dependent increase in the expression of anabolic factors (e.g., aggrecan, SOX9, and COL2A1), which are crucial for synthesis of cartilage matrix. Concurrently, it decreased the expression of catabolic factors (e.g., matrix-metalloprotein [MMP]3, MMP13, a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs [ADAMTS]4, and ADAMTS5), which are enzymes involved in cartilage degradation. We also observed synergistic effects when bathing in JLS was combined with diclofenac sodium, a conventional anti-inflammatory drug. Collectively, these findings suggest that bathing in JLS is a promising clinical intervention for knee OA. The biological effects of JLS are summarized in Table 2.
Summary of biological and pharmacological effects of Jeju lava seawater, with associated mechanisms and supporting evidence
The diverse biological and pharmacological effects of JLS are intrinsically linked to its unique and rich mineral composition, which includes both macro-minerals and various trace elements. These minerals do not act in isolation. Rather, they frequently exhibit synergistic effects, and their combined action produces a greater benefit than the sum of their individual contributions. This implies complex, often interdependent, interactions in which the overall mineral balance -rather than just individual high concentrationsis crucial for bioactivity. The complexity of JLS-derived biological effects remains incompletely understood and, as such, requires further investigation.
6. Applications and safety profile
Similar to deep-sea water, JLS may have extensive application possibilities across various industries, reflecting its recognized value and perceived health benefits [24]. The extensive industrial application of JLS across diverse sectors underscores its versatility and recognized value beyond simple hydration, driven by its unique mineral profile and perceived health benefits, indicating strong market acceptance based on observed efficacy. JLS is a prominent ingredient in numerous skincare products, including functional lotions, creams, gels, essences, and suncreams. These products are marketed for their enhanced hydration, antiaging, brightening, wrinkle improvement, skin regeneration, and anti-ultraviolet (UV) light properties. Several cosmetic products containing JLS have undergone clinical testing, demonstrating efficacy in blocking UV light (protection grade of UVA++++, sun protection factor 50+), skin tightening, and non-irritation. User reports have indicated noticeable improvements in skin hydration, radiance, and overall health. It is used in the production of potable salty groundwater, functional beverages, isotonic beverages, and mineral-enriched foods. It has been explored for use in functional foods such as Ca or Mg supplements. JLS has been incorporated into spa facilities, offering marine therapies and medical and recreational benefits aligned with the tourism industry. Balneotherapy, specifically bathing in JLS, has demonstrated promise in preclinical models of knee OA [23] by reducing joint thickness and improving mobility. JLS is also used in the manufacture of incense and other functional products. Its mineral richness makes it valuable for the cultivation of marine organisms and eco-friendly fruits and vegetables, thereby increasing their value-added potential.
7. Safety and toxicity
The safety profile of JLS has been supported in previous studies [25,26], establishing it as a reliable ingredient for human applications. The consistent demonstration of safety across multiple in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity and oral toxicity models, provides a strong foundation for its continued use and expansion into human applications, particularly in the food and cosmetics sectors. JLS is inherently pure, clean, and naturally filtered to remove organic materials, pathogens, ammonia, nitrogen, and phenols. Studies have confirmed the absence of harmful heavy metals, such as mercury and cadmium [4], and it is reported to be free from other harmful substances. Studies investigating the genotoxicity of calcium derived from JLS have shown no mutagenic potential [25]. Bacterial reverse mutation assays, chromosomal aberration assays, and mammalian micronucleus tests performed at high concentrations (up to 5,000 mg/plate) have consistently yielded negative results, indicating that JLS does not directly damage DNA or chromosomes. Acute oral toxicity trials demonstrated that JLS exerted no adverse effects or mortality over a 14-day period in Sprague-Dawley rats. Furthermore, the subacute and subchronic oral administration of JLS did not result in significant changes in body weight, relative organ weight, or hematological or biochemical biomarkers [26]. These findings suggest that oral administration of JLS at relevant doses is safe in rats, providing a basis for its application. The safety and toxicity profiles of JLS are summarized in Table 3.
Overview of clinical applications and safety data for Jeju lava seawater
RESEARCH GAPS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Although compelling preclinical (in vitro and animal) studies have demonstrated a wide array of biological and pharmacological effects of JLS, the translation of these findings into robust human clinical evidence remains a significant research gap. The significant gap in large-scale randomized controlled human clinical trials for systemic health benefits (beyond dermatology) represents the primary hurdle for JLS in gaining widespread medical recognition and broader therapeutic adoption. Currently, clinical data primarily pertain to cosmetic applications, with a focus on skin efficacy and irritation. These trials typically assess the topical benefits and safety of external use. However, for systemic health benefits, such as those related to diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease, and OA, large-scale randomized controlled human clinical trials are, in large part, absent or limited. Future research should prioritize well-designed clinical trials to validate the observed preclinical effects in human populations, establish optimal dosages, and assess the long-term safety and efficacy for various health conditions. For this purpose, the precise molecular mechanisms by which specific trace elements in JLS exert their effects within complex biological systems should be elucidated (standardization of mineral composition). Additionally, studies investigating the bioavailability of minerals in JLS should be conducted in conjunction with pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic analyses. Such studies would help to reveal the bioavailability of these minerals when administered orally or topically, and how they are absorbed, distributed, and metabolized in and excreted from the body. Additionally, studies investigating the synergistic effects of JLS and other natural extracts (e.g., LFE, carrot leaves, red ginseng, Ecklonia cava, and Zanthoxylum piperitum) should be conducted to develop more potent and targeted functional products. This approach leverages the known benefits of other compounds with the unique mineral profile of JLS.
CONCLUSION
JLS is a unique and valuable natural resource distinguished by its geological formation and rich and stable mineral composition. This distinctive origin ensures a consistent, clean, and mineral-rich supply, which is critical for industrial applicability and perceived health benefits. Several studies have revealed a wide range of biological and pharmacological effects, which include potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, indicating broad-spectrum anti-inflammatory potential. Furthermore, JLS offers multifaceted benefits to skin health and demonstrates promise in addressing metabolic disorders, such as diabetes and obesity, and exhibits chondroprotective effects that are beneficial for joint health. The mechanisms underlying these diverse effects are intricately linked to the synergistic interplay between and among its mineral components. Comprehensive toxicity assessments have confirmed its safety and provided a strong foundation for continued and expanded application in humans. Despite these promising findings, the therapeutic potential of JLS remains unclear.
Future research should prioritize large-scale human clinical trials to validate the systemic health benefits of JLS, moving beyond preclinical observations to established clinical treatments. Further efforts are needed to determine the precise bioavailability and molecular targets of its mineral components, permitting a more definitive understanding of its causal links to health improvements and enabling the optimization of therapeutic outcomes. JLS represents a compelling area for continued scientific exploration and is a promising natural resource for further scientific research investigating health and wellness.
Notes
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the 2025 education, research and student guidance grant funded by Jeju National University.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors report no conflict of interest.
FUNDING
None.